Part 2: Rhinoceros Conservation: An introduction

If you have not read part 1 of this article (which includes descriptions of the 5 species of Rhino) I would suggest a quick read, as the following article assumes prior knowledge of rhino species/distribution/characteristics etc.

Rhinos have been driven to near extinction – the world rhino population has fallen by more than 90 percent in the past 30 years. Whereas 30 species of rhino once roamed the planet, only five species remain today, and all of them are endangered. Conservation projects exist across Africa and Asia working desperately to conserve the rhino. The main threats faced by all species of rhino are poaching for their horns, habitat loss and as populations decrease; a reduction in genetic viability with inbreeding depression.

The pointless slaughter of a rhino from South Africa for it’s horns

The most abundant of all the rhino species is the southern white rhino (Ceratotherium simum simum) (classified as near threatened) with a population estimated to between 14,500 and 18,000. However, this hasn’t always been so, at the turn of the 20th century there were fewer than  200 individuals left in the wild as a direct result of extreme poaching and habitat destruction in South Africa during the 19th century. Thanks to conservationists and researchers the Southern white rhino abundance increased significantly and continues to do so today, which offers some limited hope for other rhino species whose population numbers have plummeted in recent years. The Northern white rhino (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) has potentially already become extinct in the wild with as few as 7 individuals left in captivity. A breeding program has begun in Kenya, with the hope of reintroducing the Northern white rhino back into the wild but with such a small population remaining the odds are slim. The black rhino (Diceros bicornis)is critically endangered and is found in Botswana, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Rwanda, S Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Black rhino numbers have increased over the last 7 years from about 2,500 to about 4,200 as a direct result of conservation efforts by groups such as the International Rhino Foundation, however, they still remain critically endangered. Of the 4 subspecies of black rhino the Western black rhino (Diceros bicornis longipes)  was declared extinct in 2011. Like all rhino they were heavily hunted during the early 20th century, however, the population began to grow in the 1930′s due to conservation work, but due to a lack of management, protection lapsed over the latter half of the century, by the 1980′s the population was down to the hundreds and with increased poaching by 2000 an estimated 10 individuals remained in Northern Cameroon. Poaching and the failure of governments and agencies led to the demise of  the western black rhino and as there are no known individuals in captivity this sub-species may well be gone forever.

The following graph illustrates rhino population estimates in South Africa since 1993:

As you can see from the graph the white rhino as discussed earlier has increased significantly in population size whereas the black rhino is a far more gradual process.

The Indian Rhino (AKA greater one horned) is classified as vulnerable and (Rhinoceros unicornis) like the Southern white rhino is another success story in regards to the power of proper conservation measures and Government co-operation  in bringing species back from the edge. In the early 20th century the population was estimated to be fewer than 200, however with strict co-operation coming from the Indian and Nepalese wildlife authorities the population has increased to approximately 2,850 today. However as we have seen with the Western black rhino and other animal species in the past a recovery today does not mean that the species is out of danger, as the recovery is still precarious without continued and increased support.

The video below shows one success (and the determination) of the rhino anti-poacher patrols in Kaziranga National Park, India:

The Javan rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus) is critically endangered and is only known to be found within Indonesia’s Ujung Kulon National Park in west Java after the other population found within Vietnam (sub-species: Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus) became extinct when the last one was shot by a poacher in 2010. It is the rarest of all rhino species with only 27-44 individuals remaining. They are guarded 24 hours a day by armed Rhino Protection Units which when combined with establishing a second population of the species is the best hope of preventing this species from going extinct. The IUCN Asian Rhino Specialist Group recommended that the “Vietnamese” Javan rhinos should be bred with the “Indonesian” Javan rhinos to try to increase the species’ population and to preserve genetic diversity.  Unfortunately, politics got in the way of saving the Vietnamese populaiton. The government of Vietnam would have to had given permission for the rhinos to be captured and translocated to another country, or the Indonesian government permission to transfer rhinos to Vietnam.  Neither government was willing to do this, which is why intergovernmental co-operations is essential to conservation practices on a global scale. Politics should not be a barrier to conservation efforts! Loss of habitat, especially as the result of wars, such as the Vietnam War, in Southeast Asia, has also contributed to the species’s decline and hindered recovery

The Sumatran rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) is critically endangered and is declining faster than any other rhino species as a direct result of poaching. Population numbers have decreased by more than 50% over the last 20 years, with fewer than 200 remaining. Indonesia and Sabah, Malaysia hold the only significant populations. Sumatran rhinos exist only is protected areas where they are physically guarded from harm by Rhino Protection Units. Between 12 and 25 animals remain in Sabah, Malaysia. The remainder of the population lives in three Indonesian National Parks in Sumatra: Gunung Leuser, Way Kambas, and Bukit Barisan Selatan.

The demand for rhino horn for use in Chinese medicine (not just in china but throughout Asia) is increasing and with that comes a higher price for the rhino horn and thus an increase in poaching. More than 400 rhinos were lost in south africa last year and the number has been increasing each year. The graph below illustrates the rise in rhino poaching in south africa in over the last 11 years:

In Traditional Chinese Medicine, the horn, which is shaved or ground into a powder and dissolved in boiling water, is used to treat fever, rheumatism, gout, and other disorders. According to the 16th century Chinese pharmacist Li Shi Chen, the horn could also cure snakebites, hallucinations, typhoid, headaches, carbuncles, vomiting, food poisoning, and “devil possession.” (However, it is not, as commonly believed, prescribed as an aphrodisiac).

Historical mentions of other uses for the horns date back thousands of years. In Greek mythology, they were said to possess the ability to purify water. The ancient Persians of the 5th century BC thought that vessels carved from the horn could be used to detect poisoned liquids, causing bubbles in the presence of some poisons — a belief that persisted into the 18th and 19th centuries among the royal courts of Europe.

Modern science has more or less disproved many of the supposed uses of rhino horn in medicine and indeed come up with modern medical alternatives which are far more effective at curing the aforementioned conditions.

If the remaining species of rhino are to survive beyond the next century an increase in education about rhinos and the supposed medicinal use of the horn is necessary along with increased funds for anti poaching patrols, tougher sentences on poachers and an increase in suitable habitat, particularly for the Asian species.

Grasslands: A global conservation priority

For the average person who is perhaps not so well read in conservation/ecology they would be forgiven for wondering why grasslands? Just a general survey of my neighbours finds many are aware of rainforests as biodiversity hotspots, but when I mention temperate grasslands as also being of great importance the usual response is a complete lack of knowledge as to why. I intend with this brief article to give you, the reader, a grasp of the importance of grasslands and why they are a global conservation priority.

Photograph taken by Dennis Linghor: accessed from the American Prairie Foundation’s website

To clarify when I use the term grasslands in this article I am referring to temperate grassland which is a biome (A large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat) whose predominant vegetation consists of grasses and/ or shrubs where the climate is temperate and semi-arid to semi-humid. 

Temperate grasslands were one of the world’s greatest biomes in their natural form, however, after centuries of man altering their composition through agriculture, nutrient run off, pollution, introduction of invasive plant species and removal of the land for roads/construction, this type of habitat in its original form has become one of the most endangered of all habitat types. Temperate grasslands cover 9 million sq.km (8% of the Earth’s terrestrial surface) of which 5% is now protected.

It has taken a long time for temperate grasslands to hit the mainstream conservation  arena due largely to the habitat being greatly undervalued and largely misunderstood. The Northern Great Plains of North America, the pampas and campos of South America, the Kazakh steppe and the Daurian steppe and Amur River Basin of eastern Mongolia, China and Russia are the primary areas holding some of the largest areas of temperate grassland in the world. Temperate grassland exists on every continent bar Antarctica however it is also the rarest habitat type in it’s natural form on nearly every one of them  especially in the Great Plains of North America, the pampas and campos of South America, the lowland grasslands of south-east Australia and the steppes of eastern Europe (see The World’s temperate grasslands map). In these regions conservation groups are working hard to try to conserve and increase this habitat, one such group The American Prairie Foundation is working hard to conserve the great plains in North America, their mission is to “…create and manage a prairie-based wildlife reserve that, when combined with public lands already devoted to wildlife, will protect a unique natural habitat, provide lasting economic benefits and improve public access to and enjoyment of the prairie landscape.” Many species of temperate grasses, including corn, wheat, rice and oats, continue to be a foundation of the world’s food supply. From a conservation perspective this productivity has come at a significant cost. Grasslands in temperate latitudes have been modified by human activity to such a degree that little remains today in a natural state – and substantially less in some form of long-term protection.

Grasslands are important habitats for many plant and animal species, including many that have now become rare or extinct due to a loss and fragmentation of this habitat type. They are indeed a rarer ecosystem than rainforests yet have only recently had their importance realised.  They are in their natural state a highly biodiverse ecosystem which has a great conservation and economical value attached to it. With many Governments pledging to increase the biodiversity levels of their countries temperate grassland habitat has to be a priority for conservation the planet over.

Find below a youtube video with some information and photographs of temperate grassland in North America AKA prairies:

Agroforestry: Fight climate change, poverty and conserve at the same time

Agroforestry: "Agriculture incorporating the cultivation and conservation of trees"

We are all aware of the current threats that climate change, poverty, intensification of food production and increasing energy demand are causing along with their effects upon land use.  However, there is little integration or cohesion in practice, policy or projection;

• the rush to produce biofuels and biomass for energy has created a "food or fuel" conflict;
• the likelihood of further intensification of land use threatens the gains recently made in agricultural biodiversity;
• the need to use land for carbon sequestration could reduce capacity for food production 
• whilst the fact that creating systems of land use which are adaptable and robust in the face of climate change will require radical changes is barely acknowledged in mainstream thinking.

Agroforestry is one practice that can integrate methods for food, energy and water production as well as carbon sequestration and a means to increase biodiversity. The land use system integrates trees and shrubs with crops and/or livestock production with the potential to also incorporate energy production (wind + solar). It builds on the idea of ecological design to optimise beneficial interactions between the various compartments on the land i.e. the use of nitrogen fixing tree species to aid in the nitrification of the soil which is beneficial to crop production etc. 

These interactions can lead to higher productivity compared to conventional monocultural systems, and provide a wide range of ecosystem services including soil management, microclimate modification, weed control, natural fencing, carbon sequestration and nutrient recycling. 

Agroforestry comes in four main types:

1. Silvopasture: combines livestock grazing on forage crops or pasture within actively managed tree or shrub crops.
2. Silvoarable: mixes trees amongst arable or horticultural crops
3. Forest Farming: also known as 'shade systems', is the sustainable, integrated cultivation of both timber and non-timber forest products in a forest setting.
4. Forest Gardening: is a food production and land management system based on woodland ecosystems, but substituting trees (such as fruit or nut trees), bushes, shrubs, herbs and vegetables which have yields directly useful to humans.

Potential impacts for humans of agroforestry can include:

• Reducing poverty through increased production of agroforestry products for home consumption and sale
• Contributing to food security by restoring farm soil fertility for food crops and production of fruits, nuts and edible oils
• Reducing deforestation and pressure on woodlands by providing fuelwood grown on farms
• Increasing diversity of on-farm tree crops and tree cover to buffer farmers against the effects of global climate change
• Improving nutrition to lessen the impacts of hunger and chronic illness associated with HIV/AIDS
• Augmenting accessibility to medicinal trees, the main source of medication for 80% of Africa's population

Agroforestry practices may also be employed to realize a number of other associated environmental aims, such as:

• Carbon sequestration
• Odour, dust, and noise reduction
• Waste water or manure management (e.g. utilizing urban waste water on intensive, short rotation forests for wood fibre production)
• Green space and visual aesthetics.
• Enhancement or maintenance of wildlife habitat.

Find below a video of a forest garden project being used as a model for resilient local food growing

Alexander Pope's Epistles to Several Persons

The following is two verses from Alexander Pope's Epistles to Several Persons: Epistle IV 1731. 

These verses are my favourite of any piece of literature due to their relevance to ecology and life today the line " In all, let Nature never be forgot." should be inscribed on every single page of planning legislation the world over. A beautiful piece of work in it's entirety however I have posted just my two favourite verses for their relevance as it is a long piece of work.

"To build, to plant, whatever you intend,

To rear the column, or the arch to bend,

To swell the terrace, or to sink the grot;

In all, let Nature never be forgot.

But treat the goddess like a modest fair,

Nor overdress, nor leave her wholly bare;

Let not each beauty ev'rywhere be spied,

Where half the skill is decently to hide.

He gains all points, who pleasingly confounds,

Surprises, varies, and conceals the bounds.

       Consult the genius of the place in all;

That tells the waters or to rise, or fall;

Or helps th' ambitious hill the heav'ns to scale,

Or scoops in circling theatres the vale;

Calls in the country, catches opening glades,

Joins willing woods, and varies shades from shades,

Now breaks, or now directs, th' intending lines;

Paints as you plant, and, as you work, designs."